Minority Cultures in Mississippi Essay

The purpose of this paper is to develop a better understanding of African American and Mexican American cultures in my region and their importance to United States society, as well as relating their similarities and differences to each other and my own culture. This will be done in an effort to develop skills that assist me in providing my future students the opportunity to value diversity and overcome cultural barriers and biases. This paper covers various aspects of each culture, beginning with the beliefs and traditions of each culture. In addition to those areas, the facets of religion, holidays, and foods of great significance to each culture are explored. Finally, the most meaningful area in relation to my teaching success is analyzed. The area of education is considered, focusing on educational aspirations as well as the professions of members of these cultures due to their educational backgrounds. After examining all of the aspects, the cultures will be compared and contrasted in an effort to learn how to overcome cultural differences. African American Family Life Family life is one of the most important aspects in the African American culture. This belief stems from both their African roots and early slavery. Keeping family members close was important in both tribal Africa and among slaves. Your family is believed to give you strength and support; this belief is still widely practiced today. African American families frequently visit both immediate as well as extended family. In fact, neighborhood barbeques and parties are a common occurrence. African American families also hold family reunions yearly, which include several surnames of families who may be closely related or as distant as fourteenth cousins or more. Often times, non-relatives are also invited and treated as family. Many African American neighborhoods are close-knit communities who often spend much of their spare time socializing with one another. Because of this closeness, many non-relatives become known as â€Å"play† family. These â€Å"play† family members have become such good friends to the family that they are treated as members of the extended family. The elderly are regarded as the head of the family and are given the utmost respect. To the African American culture, living a long life means the person is very wise and is often the first source for advice. An elder is believed to have led a fulfilled life and the funeral, therefore, is often celebrated as a joyous occasion. To the African American culture, death is simply passing from one realm of life to another. They believe their loved one is leaving the evils of this world behind for a utopia, so there is often a party after the burial service. African American Hairstyles and Names Many African American beliefs and traditions can be traced back to their original African roots. Locks and braiding are two of these. They are widely practiced hairstyles among African Americans today. Both types of hairstyles were started by tribes in Africa. Locks, commonly called dread-locks, are common among the tribes of South Africa. Because water is scarce and dust is prevalent in that area, locks are popular due to their ease of maintenance. Braiding, on the other hand, is an aspect of worth among Western African tribes. Often, the men of tribes there receive a braided lock for achieving a substantial accomplishment. Both of these traditional African hairstyles made their way to the United States with the slaves and are still of great importance to African American culture today, as a method of displaying pride in their historical roots. Another aspect of African American culture with ties to Africa is naming children. Children are often given names with African roots. However, the members of the African American culture have also developed a set of names, which are uniquely African American. They often add the prefixes of La-, Le-, and Da- to their children’s names, which is exclusive only to their culture. African American Music African American culture has given United States society various styles of music in the form of religious hymns and spirituals, jazz, blues, and hip-hop. Spirituals began with slaves on the plantations. They were often used to send secret messages between each other because the plantation owners could not understand their meanings. These songs were religious folk songs based on African music styles and were improvisational. The spirituals used various musical aspects from smooth flowing styles, which led to the sensual sounds of jazz, to sadness and despair, which led to the blues, to spoken-word singsong, which eventually led to hip-hop. â€Å"Ethnomusicologists trace hip-hop’s roots to the dance, drum, and song of West African griots, or storytellers, its pairing of word and music, and the manifestation of the painful journey of slaves who survived the middle passage† (McBride, 2007, p. 102). African American Language The American English language was also greatly influenced by the African American culture, especially in the Southern United States. â€Å"African American Vernacular English (AAVE) is a variation of the American English language closely associated with the speech of African Americans† (Coulmas, 2005, p. 177). AAVE is considered by many as slang, and it is in prevalent use by African Americans, as well as other cultures, all over the United States today. African American Religion The Black Church has historically been a source of hope and strength for the African American community. Religion is an essential and integral part of their lives, with approximately 85 percent of African Americans belonging to a Protestant denomination. In the African American society, God is viewed as the source of both good health and serious illness. The most common method of treating illness in the African American culture is prayer. It is expected in most churches that an individual should present their best appearance for worship. African American women in particular are known for wearing vibrant dresses and suits. The Black Church is one of intense enthusiasm and high emotion. African American author W. E. B. DuBois perhaps captured the spirit of the Black Church best by stating, â€Å"Even in the midst of preaching, the worshipers carried on a dialogue with the preacher by shouting approvals or calling out remarks aimed at encouraging him to work harder to reach his point† (DuBois, 2005, pp. 184 – 185). It is not uncommon to hear an African American congregation shouting â€Å"Amen! † or â€Å"Preach it, Brother! † or â€Å"You tell ‘em, Reverend† in agreeance with their pastor or to hear the choir echoing â€Å"Well? † behind the pulpit to advance the pastor’s next words. The entire world could learn from the African American culture’s passion for Christ. African American Holidays The African American culture has several holidays which not only help its members connect to their historical roots but assist the rest of society in identifying the significant impact African Americans have had on shaping the United States. One way this is done is through Black History Month. Each February, television networks and schools throughout the United States celebrate the contributions of various African Americans to the world. One of the individuals focused on during Black History Month is Martin Luther King Jr. , whose quest for equality, peace, and civil rights was so powerful in shaping American society that his birthday is another important holiday in the African American culture. Now recognized as a national federal holiday, Martin Luther King Jr. Day is celebrated nationwide on January 15. Another significant holiday is Juneteenth. The news of the Emancipation Proclamation signing reached the slaves of the South on June 19, 1865, and the slaves responded by having a huge celebration. Today, Juneteenth allows African Americans the opportunity to celebrate freedom and is celebrated all over the United States with food, storytelling, games, music, and African American culture. â€Å"Each year, over thirteen million African Americans celebrate Kwanzaa† (Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences, 2003, p. 57). This holiday uses customs from the harvest celebrations of Africa and was developed to help African Americans celebrate their heritage. This holiday lasts seven days and focuses on seven principles of the Swahili people. Upon a unity mat sits a candleholder with seven candles, and one candle is lit each day to represent one of the principles. Christmas is another important holiday for African Americans because of the Black Nativity play performed in many churches. Originally written by Langston Hughes, it is a retelling of the classic nativity story, only with an entirely African American cast and gospel style Christmas carols. A major performance of this play is held yearly in Boston at Tremont Temple by The National Center of Afro-American Artists (NCAAA), who refer to Black Nativity as, â€Å"a legendary Christmas event and the Black community’s Christmas gift to the world† (NCAAA, 2008). African American Foods The foods of the African Americans also play an important role in most cultures of the United Stated. These foods, commonly referred to as soul food, have become widely popular throughout the United States. Many of these foods such as black-eyed peas, cornbread, greens, sweet potatoes, macaroni and cheese, and deep fried foods were originally eaten in Africa and made their way to the United States with the slaves. While others, such as chitlins, neck bones, and ham hocks, were created by the slaves out of necessity. During their time in captivity, they were only fed the scraps that their owners would not eat, ant they had to discover methods of cooking these items in such a way that they would be edible. African American Education and Employment African Americans in Mississippi unfortunately live in one of the poorest states in the country, and their education is influenced by that factor. The poor economic state of Mississippi greatly hinders the public school system here due to lack of funding. In the Mississippi Delta, where the population is almost entirely African American, â€Å"the economy is so depleted that obtaining a quality education is extremely difficult† (U. S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2001, p. 36). The lack of a quality education hinders Mississippi’s number of high school and college graduates, but for African Americans the number is extremely grave. Only 47. 3 percent of African American students in Mississippi will earn a high school diploma, and of that percentage, only 8. 8 percent of them will go on to earn a bachelor’s degree or higher† (U. S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2001, p. 36). It is a widely known fact that not graduating high school greatly influences a person’s financial and professional future. With less than half of the African American population of Mississippi graduating high school, the poverty level among these individuals is obviously high. The number of African American families living below poverty level is tremendous, especially in majority-black communities like one would find in the Mississippi Delta. â€Å"The percentage of black families with incomes below the poverty level runs from a low of 46. 4 percent in Washington County to a high of 68 percent in Tunica County, and most Mississippi counties are marked by double-digit unemployment rates† (U. S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2001, p. 1 – 2). The individuals who are employed are most likely employed in a position that pays the federal minimum wage rate, such as fast food or retail chains, due to the low high school graduation rate. Overall, the African American culture in Mississippi is at a great disadvantage when it comes to educational and professional success. Mexican American Family Life Family closeness is an important aspect of Mexican American culture, as well. Not only do the members of this culture spend a great deal of time with their families, but they often all live together under one roof. It is not uncommon for grandparents, parents, children, cousins, aunts, and uncles to all live in the same home. The entire family is involved in all aspects of each other’s lives, with the elders being the most respected and revered members of the family. Children are expected to honor their families no matter the circumstances. Their actions must never bring shame to their family, and traditional Mexican American families are very strict on their children in an effort to keep them from participating in dishonorable acts. These values of honor, respect, and family endearment are carried out in death as well. When a loved one passes away, they are dressed in special clothing and stay in the family home overnight. While in the family home, a wake is held, and friends and family bring food to serve at the wake. Only the family then accompanies the body to the grave. No service is held, but the family members sing religious Spanish hymns. â€Å"Most significant is the perspective on death held by many Mexican American Catholics that, rather than an end, death is seen as a new beginning† (Diaz-Stevens & Stevens Arroyo, 1998, p. 73). Because of this view, for years after the original wake, on the same date, those who attended it will reunite to celebrate the life and passing of their loved one. Mexican American Names and Language For the most part, Mexican Americans stay true to their original Mexican heritage and culture. While a few Mexican American families choose to name their children more traditional American names, the majority of parents choose names with Mexican ties and meanings, like Javier, Joaquin, Carmen, and Rosa. Another way, Mexican Americans stay connected to their heritage is through their language. Even fluent English speakers tend to speak Spanish with other members of their culture, as opposed to English. Mexican American parents who choose to teach their children to speak English teach them Spanish as well and most often speak to them in the Spanish language. Mexican Americans also choose to incorporate Spanish music and television into their daily lives. In fact, the interest is so high among Mexican Americans to have Spanish television in the United States that cable and satellite providers have special packages created especially for the Hispanic people, which include channels from Mexico such as Telemundo and Univision. Mexican American Quinces Another tradition of Mexican American families is a quince. â€Å"No matter how Americanized a Latina is, chances are she will look forward to her quince. No matter how economically tight her parents might be, they will maintain the tradition† (Figueredo, 2002, p. 152). A quince is the Mexican equivalent to a sweet sixteen party combined with a debutant ball. The quince takes place on a girl’s fifteenth birthday and is very formal. The birthday girl has several female maids and male escorts in her court. The court makes its grand entrance, and the birthday girl and her father begin to waltz. Soon, the entire court joins in, and once the waltz is complete, the party continues, as would an American sweet sixteen party. Mexican American Religion Religion and prayer are very important to the Mexican American culture. â€Å"Approximately 80 percent of the Mexican American population is of the Catholic faith† (Figueredo, 2002, p. 166). Mexican Americans are a very superstitious people, frequently wearing medallions or amulets for protection. The prevention of illness and unfortunate events is believed to be accomplished with prayer, wearing religious relics, and keeping religious charms in the home. Many homes have shrines for prayer in them; these shrines contain religious statues, pictures of various saints, and prayer candles. The family members gather at these shrines, light the prayer candles and rigorously pray. Mexican American Holidays Holidays are of great significance in the Mexican culture, and many of the holidays celebrated in Mexico are still celebrated by Mexican Americans in the United States. Semana Santa celebrates the Christian holiday of Easter and runs from Palm Sunday to Easter Sunday. The most essential aspect of this holiday is attending mass on both Good Friday and Easter Sunday. â€Å"Live representations of Jesus Christ’s crucifixion take place in many communities†¦people from the communities assume the roles of Jesus, Virgin Mary, St. Peter, St. John, and many other characters† (Michigan State University, 2008). Cinco de Mayo is celebrated yearly on May 5 and commemorates the defeat of the French army by the Mexicans at The Battle of Puebla in 1862. â€Å"This victory gave the Mexican people pride in their country and the spirit of freedom and is celebrated in various parts of Mexico and in U. S. cities with a significant Mexican American population† (Michigan State University, 2008). The Day of the Dead is a celebration that represents the unity between life and death. On October 31, relatives decorate the gravesite of their loved ones in preparation for the return of their loved one’s soul. They also decorate an altar at their home with photos of the loved one and some of the loved one’s favorite items. The Feast of Our Lady Guadalupe is a very important religious holiday among Mexican Americans. It is believed that a female appeared to an Indian, outside of Mexico City, and said she was the mother of God. She left an image of herself on his cactus-cloth. â€Å"It [the cloth] should have deteriorated in twenty years but shows no sign of decay 477 years later† (Michigan State University, 2008). She has become a prestigious religious figure for Mexican American Catholics, and her holiday is celebrated on December 12 each year by attending a special mass service. The Christmas holiday season for the Mexican American culture runs from December 16 through February 2 each year and is combined with traditional Christian aspects as well as special Mexican festivities. The first of these is Las Posadas, which is nine consecutive days of candlelight processions and parties. Neighborhood families gather to reenact the holy family’s night in Bethlehem. The breaking of the pinata is a very important aspect of this holiday. The second of these is Noche Buena, which is the peak of holiday festivities, with the celebration of a midnight mass on Christmas Eve. After the mass, the families enjoy a traditional Christmas supper, common to the United States, of turkey, ham, and other common Christmas dinner items. The family then opens gifts and celebrates with a pinata and sparklers. Christmas Day is traditionally set aside for rest. The final of these celebrations occurs on January 6 and is called Dia de Los Tres Reyes Magos. This day celebrates the arrival of the Wise Men in Bethlehem. Mexican American children wake up to toys and other gifts. Rosca de Reyes is served on this day, which is a crown-shaped sweet bread decorated with jewel-like candied fruits and a tiny plastic baby hidden inside. Whoever finds the baby in their piece is required to host a party before the Christmas holiday season ends on February 2. Mexican American Foods â€Å"Tex-Mex is a term used to describe a regional American cuisine that blends food products available in the United States and the culinary creations of Mexican Americans influenced by the cuisines of Mexico† (Barrios Trevino, 2002, p. 3). Many dishes such as chili, fajitas, salsa, quesadillas, burritos, and nachos are not true Mexican dishes but were invented in the United States by Mexican Americans. Even dishes cooked here that originated in Mexico, like tacos, are not prepared in the same manner they would be in Mexico. While Mexican American Tex-Mex dishes are cooked to be hot, topped with tons of cheese, and served in large portions, true Mexican dishes are exactly the opposite. Therefore, Mexican Americans coined their own style of cooking and created some of the United States most loved dishes. Mexican American Education and Employment Unfortunately, the graduation rates for Mexican Americans are very low. The language barrier between the Mexican American culture and the English speaking population of the United States combined with the obligation on many Mexican Americans to work to help support family in Mexico no doubt contribute to this. â€Å"Only about half, 48. 7 percent, of the Mexican American population complete their high school education, and a mere 15. 4 percent of those students earn at least a bachelor’s degree† (U. S. Dept of Commerce Bureau of the Census, 2003 p. 5). The majority of Mexican Americans gain employment at blue-collar jobs such as construction or in the restaurant industry. Many Mexican Americans come to the United States illegally, which causes them to look for employment with employers who will look past their status. Being here illegally or working a blue-collar job means that most Mexican Americans must settle for low wages of minimum wage or slightly higher. Similarities Between the Two Cultures Conducting this research led to the surprising discovery of several similarities. Both cultures desire to remain close to their families, both immediate and extended, by not only seeing each other often but also buy having parties and get-togethers. Both cultures rely greatly on the elderly members of their culture for their knowledge and advice and treat them with the utmost respect and endearment. While the actual proceedings of the funeral are quite different, the cultures are the same in that they see death as a new beginning and, therefore, a cause for celebration. Both cultures are also proud of their heritage. This can be seen in everything from their celebratory traditions during certain holidays to giving their children names, which are unique to their culture. Another similarity is the strong part religion and prayer play in the lives of the members of each culture. In both cultures, prayer is believed to provide comfort and protection. Finally, the most disheartening theme which is common among both cultures is the high dropout rate among high school students and the fact that most members of each culture are employed in low paying positions either due to a lack of education or opportunity. Differences Among the Two Cultures As suspected, the research also led to the discovery of many differences among the cultures as well. As previously mentioned, the burial process of a loved one is quite different among the cultures. African Americans tend to have elaborate, celebratory services honoring the life of their loved one and invite all friends and family members to the burial service. The body is usually sent to a funeral home for preparation and burial. Mexican Americans, on the other hand, keep the body in their home and invite friends and family to pay their respects during a wake. The body is initially prepared by the family for the wake, and only family members attend the actual burial. Although African American families work hard to keep their families close, only their immediate family lives in the home with them unless circumstances cause otherwise, while Mexican Americans quite often live in a home with many relatives of both their immediate and extended family. Their religions and religious practices are also very different. Most all African Americans are of a Protestant denomination, while most all Mexican Americans are Catholic. The Catholic services of Mexican Americans tend to be very quiet and solemn, while African American services are very loud, emotional affairs, with frequent shouts of praise and singing. Shrines are also very important to Mexican American prayer, while African Americans choose to pray almost anywhere. They do not feel the need to pray at a particular place or around particular items. Another major difference is in the types of foods each culture consumes. African Americans tend to eat a lot of vegetables and fried foods, heavy in salt. Mexican Americans, however, eat meals, which include a lot of meat and tortillas with very few vegetables, which include tomatoes, onions, and hot peppers. Applying the Project to the Classroom Recognizing the characteristics of each culture, along with the similarities and differences in each culture, will assist one in overcoming cultural barriers and biases. The information in this project will prove to be very useful inside a classroom. It could be used in several ways, the first being to teach students about each culture. The second way would be to teach students how the cultures are alike or different. The final way would help students compare the cultures to their own. One way this information could be applied is by teaching students about a holiday unique to one of the cultures. For example, on or close to December 16, the teacher could ask the students to come to school dressed as a character from the nativity story such as an angel, a Wise Man, or a shepherd. Then, after studying about Las Posadas and even having a Mexican American student tell a story about the holiday if possible, the students could parade up and down the hallways of the school and end their festivities by taking turns trying to break a pinata. Another way this information could be applied is to have the children write a story about a family celebration or gathering and then having each student read their story aloud. By doing this, each child will have the opportunity to see similarities and differences between each cultural group represented in the classroom. This would also help minority groups such as African Americans and Mexican Americans identify with majority students and move toward forming bonds. A final way this information could be applied is by studying the foods eaten by both cultures. The teacher could read a story about the foods of both cultures and explain the origins of each culture’s foods. During this lesson, the students should sample various foods from both cultures. By doing this, the students will not only be learning about another culture and receiving the opportunity to try something new but will also most likely discover that they have already had many of the foods from both cultures but were unaware of it. Each culture has aspects, which are unique only to that culture. However, both cultures also have aspects, which can be related to one’s own culture. In any event, both cultures are uniquely beautiful and contribute to the United States society and culture as a whole and should therefore not only be respected but also treasured. In its own way, each culture, combined with all of the other cultures of the United States people make our nation the greatly extraordinary country that it is. ? References Barrios Trevino, D. (2002). Los Barrios family cookbook: Tex-Mex recipes from the heart of San Antonio. New York, NY: Villard Books. (Primary Source) Coulmas, F. (2005). Sociolinguistics: The study of speakers’ choices. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. (Secondary Source) Diaz-Stevens, A. M. & Stevens Arroyo, A. M. (1998). Recognizing the Latino resurgence in U. S. religion. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. (Secondary Source) DuBois, W. E. B. (2005). The souls of black folk. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster. (Primary Source) Figueredo, D. H. (2002). The complete idiot’s guide to Latino history and culture. New York, NY: Alpha Books. (Secondary Source) McBride, J (2007, April). Hip hop planet. National Geographic, 211(4), 100-118. (Secondary Source) Michigan State University Teaching Hispanic Cultures of the Americas Institute (2008). Learning about Hispanic cultures through the study of Latino and Mexican holidays, celebrations and traditions. Retrieved June 28, 2009, from http://www. educ. msu. edu/teachglobal/Americas/module1. html (Primary Source) National Center of Afro-American Artists (2008). Black nativity. Retrieved June 27, 2009, from http://www. blacknativity. org/about/index. html (Secondary Source) Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences (2003). Guide to exploring African American culture. Retrieved June 28, 2009, from http://pubs. cas. psu. edu/FreePubs/pdfs/agrs92. pdf (Primary Source) U. S. Commission on Civil Rights (2001). Racial and ethnic tensions in American communities: Poverty, inequality, and discrimination the Mississippi delta report. Retrieved June 28, 2009, from http://www. usccr. gov/pubs/msdelta/main. htm (Primary Source) U. S. Dept of Commerce Bureau of the Census (2003). We the American: Hispanics. Retrieved June 26, 2009, from http://www. census. gov/apsd/wepeople/we-2r. pdf (Primary Source)

High School vs College

As we go on in life we face many challenges and new situations that we deal with. A new situation that most people deal with is college and all the changes that come along with it. What many people don't realize is that high school, in many ways, is similar and different from college. Not only are people changing but the surroundings and work change as well. There are some things that seem to never change such as some work and people. High School and College are both educational grounds for a student to grow their lives with knowledge. Both places are full of experiences and filled with numerous memories. An individual graduates from High School and again in College with a degree. The government runs them. Both play an important role in making a person into a collected individual and a member of a society.. One of the biggest differences between high school and college is the atmosphere. When attending high school you wake up, go to school for a couple of hours of your day, and leave. This is very different when you get to college. Most of the time, when attending a university, you find schedule a lot different than in high school. For example, some people that go to college may live on their own meaning that they are responsible for getting themselves to class on time. Also, in college you usually don’t have all of your classes one right after the other like in high school. Instead, you may have a longer class period, followed up by a couple of hours in between your next class. Furthermore, you don’t have every class, everyday like you do in high school.

A society & dominated Essay

In a society dominated by pop culture, fashion always comes into play. For pop culture always requires novelty, and people has to keep up with the trends as time changes. Fashion has affected almost all aspect of the Homo sapiens way of living for it is the key to change. And because fashion takes many forms as time changes it had even infiltrated our mindset in setting a standard for a good physique—the very idea of sexy per se. In line with this, two writers discuss how fashion has greatly affected the psyche of both male and female of this generation as to how they perceive the image of a sexy person. Andrea Heiman in her article â€Å"When a Fad Does a Body Harm† and Rita Kemply’s article â€Å"Boys and the Beefcake Images† have pointed out that fashion has created a venue for other people to abuse their body and to live an unhealthy lifestyle. That is girls starving themselves to death to look perfectly thin and boys excessively using steroids to live up to the very concept of machismo today. Both Heiman and Kemply agree that a change in fashion as subject to the body form of both men and women has become hazardous to health. However the two authors have taken different sides to explain why this scenario happens. On the one hand Heiman, the feminist said that women starved themselves to death because being thin has become the epitome of looking really good to most men. As women strive to be part of the arena dominated by men, fashion has created ways to repress them. By looking frail men still claims their superiority over women. On the other hand Kemply perceive that the primary reason why men use steroids to maintain the so-called masculine image is that they are being judge with their physicality. Kemply said that women have created a standard that most men look attractive when they have muscles, lean body and no beer bellies. Both authors were able to explain how fashion can become hazardous to one’s health. However it is not sound that the reason why these circumstances happen is blamed on the perception of male and female toward the ideal look of a sexy body. For both genders are just victims of the so called pop culture. Moreover, pop culture has their psyche conditioned to that kind of notion to a point that their self-esteem becomes low. People should not judge a person based on how he or she looks. A standard of looking sexy should not be made for it is not the physical aspects of a person that counts most when we are trying to build a healthy relationship. In addition, fashion should be the melting pot of change that could benefit every regardless of gender. It should not be the key to affect the mentality of everyone that would cause to detrimental effects to our body.

Gun control in my community and nationally Research Proposal

Gun control in my community and nationally - Research Proposal Example According to Guns and Crime 2012, the policies and laws regarding gun control are different within states in the USA making it hard to streamline the problem nationally. Nationally, the provisions under the second amendment are also broad meaning that it has contributed to the acceptance of the gun culture in America. The film and video gaming industries in America is also another avenue that contributes to this societal problem as this industry has painted gun violence as a heritage for the American population. With this essay will delve into some of the national and local resources that exist concerning gun control both nationally and locally with an aim on their effectiveness and failure. As it has emerged, gun ownership serves as a portion of the gun control issue, but it is a matter of relevance in combating gun violence. Ideally, many federal states do not allow the legal sale of guns to under age children, which is policy that cuts across many jurisdictions. On the contrary, the fourteenth amendment is also a fundamental area that allows citizens to acquire licensed firearms for self-protection making it possible for innocent civilians to take charge of their safety. Therefore, this has helped promote equality for the minority groups residing in America because America has developed into a multicultural society. This means that gun ownership does not have restriction to a particular race as it used to be in the colonial days. On the other hand, the policies that exist regarding gun ownership also create a loophole making them subject to review. For instance, the creation of the background checks system in 1993 was one whose intention was to ensure that those that acquire guns are law-abiding citizens and not prior offenders (Guns and Crime 2012). However, proponents argue that this check system should also include those that have prior substance abuse problems and those implicated in domestic

Information Technology and Contemporary Social Change Essay

Information Technology and Contemporary Social Change - Essay Example By 2000, it became obvious that another major upheaval was taking place in society-the electronic or information revolution. The growth of the Internet between 1990 and 2000 was phenomenal, and at present shows no signs of decreasing. An overview makes it apparent that information technology (IT) and the resulting electronic advances determine social change throughout the planet as noted below: The business world now extends throughout the global community, and any business which does not have its own Web site is apt to fail. It is also a time when entrepreneurs are able to work on computers from home to earn money. With online shopping and eBay, all needs are anticipated, from the largest department stores to an individual selling on eBay. No longer is society isolated in pockets of communities; ease of travel has made the whole world accessible. In addition, information technology has linked the public to government, non-government, and private agencies where information can be downloaded without having to leave home. This is especially true in the United Kingdom. Every issue of concern to UK residents has a main Government site with several links to various issues and strategies. For instance, if one wishes to find information on poverty as a social illness, it is available at the following Web site: http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/social_exclusion_task_force/ Less one-on-one personal contact with increase in IT communication It is obvious that anyone dependent on use of a computer will have less personal contact with individuals. Even as world travel becomes less and less complicated, people are becoming more and more isolated. Watch the person traveling to a resort and sitting at a table all alone with a wireless computer open in front of him or her rather than striking up a conversation with other visitors from all over the world. E-mails offer quick, brief communication as a method of connecting with another person, but they don't lend themselves to long discussions and personal interaction with friends and relatives. Some people become so addicted to online discussion groups that they spend all their free time engaged in mindless chatter, and some use chat groups as therapy sessions or a way to communicate with others who share similar interests. There are an overwhelming number of chat groups available on the Internet, from how to use a business program called SharePoint to communications with fell ow cat lovers. Google offers information on every subject, but information is not always correct. Using the Internet to research a paper or find a specific product has many benefits, but the important factor is the source of information-whether or not it is reliable. For research purposes, the priority for a researcher is to access several sites regarding an issue and make a decision based on personal understanding of the material. For product reliability and best price, it is necessary to explore the same product from several

Ballistic pendulum Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Ballistic pendulum - Lab Report Example Therefore, it rises to the maximum height allowed by their original kinetic energy In the experiment, the ball with mass m is fired from the spring gun with an original horizontal velocity v1. At time t= t1 , it collides with the pendulum with the mass M and the corresponding length L, which is originally at rest. At t=t2 the ball is trapped in the interior the pendulum. Moreover, the pendulum is at height h1 and the starts to move at the velocity v2 and swings upward. At t=t3 the ball is brought to halt at a height h2 by force of gravity. Initial velocity of the ball V1 is calculated by the measurement Through application of the Conservation of Energy to the ball-pendulum system amidst the two times t2 and t3, the time t2 is the instant subsequent to the collision and t3 is the instant that the ball pendulum combination stops at its underlying maximum height ( h2) Considering the projectile when there is no pendulum, originally travelling horizontally, the ball has a velocity v1 as it leaves the spring gun. Moreover, when it hits the floor it has travelled horizontal distance x and the vertical distance y. In case it takes time t, the basic emotion equations become x= v1t The pendulum was from the apparatus and the measurement of its mass was recorded using the triple beam balance. Mass of the steel ball was also recorded. The ball was placed in the pendulum’s catcher and the distance from the pivot to the balance of the pendulum and the ball combination was measured and recorded (L). The pendulum was reconnected and the ball was shoot so that it can get trapped by the pendulum for 5 times and the maximum angle was recorded. The angles were used to calculate the initial velocity for each one utilizing provided equations. Pendulum was removed out of the way and the ball was shoot and its landing taken into account. Black mat and the sheet of white paper were taped . The shoots were taken for 5 times in

Business Personnel and Human Resource Management Essay

Business Personnel and Human Resource Management - Essay Example Human resource management is the management that helps in the recruitment, selection, training and development of workers in an organization to get members who can work towards achieving the goal of the organization (Aswathappa, 2005:5). Although personnel management and human resource management may seem to be the same, the difference is that personnel management deals entirely with the workforce while human resource management deals with the resources (Pangarkar, 2008:17). The organizational purpose of a company depends majorly on the human resource management. An organization that lacks good and organized human resource cannot achieve its goal. Human resource management is important because it is the management that deals with the recruitment of the workers, without which the purpose of the company cannot be achieved. If there is lack of the workforce, then the organization would not achieve its goal. It is the human resource management that deals with the selection of the newly r ecruited workers, to ensure the workers work in the fields that they can deliver their duties well. The human resource management also organizes for training to the workers to ensure they gain knowledge. The processes of recruiting selection and training of workers, all which lie under human resource management work towards accomplishing the goal of an organization; thus, human resource management have an important impact on the purpose of an organization (Weber, 2008.:51). B. Access the role and responsibilities of a line manager in the Google Company The Google Company is a company formed with the aim of making it easy for people to search for anything from the web. It is a site that understands everything that anyone searches and gives back exactly what people need. Google, being a company like any other has its organizational structure which helps in its daily operation. A line manager is the manager who is closer to the workers, who deals with the issues brought to them by empl oyees or teams and is responsible for a higher level of management for the employees (CIPD, 2013). Line managers are responsible for daily management of workers and issues affecting them. The line manager in this company is the one who manages the operational costs of the company through accessing the company’s operational expenses. Line managers should also provide technical training to the workers. They induce the workers to the job through organizing for trainings in the various job fields in the company. A line manager has the responsibility if allocating the work to different workers to ensure that the right person attends the right duty. It is also their duty to supervise the progress of the work in the company, to check for any failures in delivery of duty by the workers. They also monitor the quality of the work done to ensure that the company meets and maintains its standards. Customers in a given field of business have their needs and desires that need to be address ed. Responsibly, the line manager responds to the needs and complaints of the clients effectively to aid in realization of organizational golas. All these duties of the line manager focus on ensuring a successful progress on the company; thus it is the duty of the line manager to measure the performance of all the operations (Weber, 2008:73). C. Examine the organizational environment that impacts the HRM function in your organization, outlining the impacts of legal and

More perfect union speech Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

More perfect union speech - Essay Example The problem was first caused by the white race subgroup in the United States as against other racial subgroups, especially the African-American subgroup. No matter what side it is, having and spreading resentments does not help alleviate conflicts and sharp differences. Anger and resentment does not solve any problem. In fact, sentiments and notions of anger and resentment add more fuel for problems to escalate. Anger and resentment only encourage animosity and division among people and groups. Conflicts arise when anger gets in the way of better judgment, and clouds rationality and logic. The world is already rife with too many prejudicial tendencies by groups that espouse ambivalent notions. Even religious leaders are guilty of preaching such messages, basing their sermons and teachings on personal beliefs and experiences. In relation to that part of his speech, Obama quoted William Faulkner by saying that, â€Å"the past isnt dead and buried. In fact, it isnt even past". What Obama is trying to say is that issues of the past regarding race relations are still ongoing, and have never been put to rest. This was especially visible and expected during Obama’s campaign for presidency, in which the likeliness of him winning the post was unexpected. Take into consideration the fact that all the United States presidents before Obama were Caucasians. This implies that American society still considers race as a factor and issue in national decisions. That being the case, the question that arises is whether a trans-racial society is possible and desirable in the United States. It is possible for such a society to exist, but only if the people learn and are educated to see society and state beyond the differences of race. There needs to be a change in cultural awareness, which plays a significant role in social activities. Differences in

Thomas Hobbes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Thomas Hobbes - Essay Example Man’s capriciousness is a threat to themselves and the desire for what others have gained in pursuit of the so-called equality without examining what can make them truly satisfied serves as self-destructive factors. Such claim could be further examined with Hobbes’s three principal causes of quarrel which are: competition diffidence and glory. The concept of the three principal causes can be associated with the example on man’s thrive to equality. In war, time hold a specific and essential role. c. Hobbes opined that time in war is as essential as time in weather. Bad weather cannot be measured with the amount of rain but the rainy days altogether; just as war where threat is not apparent in the battle itself but how long is it going to take for war to persist, because after the war, there is an assurance of peace. The state of war and argument is caused by man himself, and only he can make means to end it by making a pact or covenant in which both parties have t o observe. Section 2: Question 1 â€Å"J.J. Thompson claims...† According to J.J. Thompson, abortion is not always morally impermissible. She noted that a woman must be given the right to choose whether or not the baby should live, in case that the pregnancy was due to rape. She contends that the impermissibility of abortion is a case to case basis. And because of that argument she created thought experiments to further defend her view on that matter. There are few thought experiments she presented in her essay where one is an example analogous to pregnancy due to rape and the other is based on the concept of people-seeds. The first mentioned tells about you being kidnapped. A famous violinist needs your body so that he could live and so, he is ‘plugged’ into your body by some medical tube, where it should stay there for nine months (or more). The doctor said that you have no choice because until he recovers and removing the tubes would mean killing him. In the s ame way, pro-life views would say that abortion of pregnancy due to rape is still impermissible because the life in the womb is innocent, the same way as the violinist is innocent. Because of this, the woman in the example, and the woman being pregnant by rape has the same situation. Thompson further asserts that if right to life is given more weight than right to choose in any circumstance, it is just like saying that the person in the example does not have the right to remove the tubes from her body because it would mean murder; and murder is always and absolutely impermissible. The second thought experiment tells about â€Å"people-seeds.† Thompson argued that unwanted pregnancy even due to voluntary intercourse with contraception gives the mother the right to abort the baby because using contraception infers that the woman does not desire to have a baby. Thompson compared it to a person who puts in mesh screens so that pollens will not be implanted. If in case a seed drif ts in and takes its root, this gives the owner the right to remove it. Thompson’s arguments are direct to the point. She has clear associations which illustrate the points she wanted to express. However, she missed two points in her arguments which made her thought experiments unsuccessful. First, women have an in born motherly instinct and conscience and second, it is well documented that there is no 100% effective birth control method except for abstinence, so

Brief Case Studies - Week 7 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Brief Case Studies - Week 7 - Essay Example They are listed in different stock exchanges of the world as well. Under such circumstances, it becomes quite complicated as well as costly to prepare the financial statements under different reporting requirements. IFRS issued by IASB provides the treatment of fair value accounting of property, plant and equipment which is currently not supported US GAAP issued by FASB. However, with the increasing adoption of IFRS, it is very likely that US GAAP will also add the similar treatment for fair value accounting of Property, Plant and Equipment. b) Fair value accounting has the biggest disadvantage of valuing property, plant and equipment on the basis of subjectivity. When measuring fair values of the property, plant and equipment, several subjective assumptions are taken by the evaluators which pose question marks upon the objective approach towards financial statements. Thus, the financial statements become less attractive to be compared with other financial statements of other entitie s due to lack of objectivity element. c) The fair value accounting for property, plant and equipment has the similarity with that of investment accounting. Under both types of accounting, if the fair values of the asset are increased, then stockholders’ equity is also increased directly such that it has no impact on the net profit of the entity. However, in case of decrease of the fair value of property, plant and equipment, and investment, the amount of decrease is expensed out in the income statement which directly decreases the profitability of the entity. After that the decreased amount of net profit is credited to stockholder’s equity. This mechanism is set out in order to apply the principle of conservatism which states that the entity should not anticipate any profits but it must anticipate all the losses. The fair value accounting for property, plant and equipment and investment accounting consider this principle as the unrealized gains are credited directly to equity whereas unrealized losses are charged as an expense in the income statement thus reducing the profitability of the entity. Analysis of Statement of Cash Flows (Case 16-3) a) 1. As far as depreciation is concerned, it is an item of non-cash expense. To make it very clear, it is not a cash flow. However, the reason behind including depreciation in cash flow statements is the elimination of effect of depreciation from calculating net cash flow increased or decreased. In order to arrive at the corrected figure of cash flows, the depreciation amount needs to be added in the net profit as it was deducted previously when calculating net income in the income statement. Since it is a non-cash expense, therefore, it does not decrease the cash flows. Because of this, it is added in the cash flow statement in order to provide the correct amount of cash flows. 2. Even though share issued for acquiring land is not a cash transaction, however, the substance of this transaction is based on share. If the company is going to buy back these shares, it would have to complete this transaction by providing consideration in cash. Under existing scenario, cash is not directly involved, but a significant investment is made, therefore, this transaction is shown as a separate schedule in the cash flow statement and not included in the mainstream working of calculation of cash flows. 3. Gain on sale of investment is also non-cash income therefore its treatment is similar to that of depreciation. Since the amount

Minutes of associated student organization Essay

Minutes of associated student organization - Essay Example In fact, Sarah and Michael had a screaming match about the amount the fees had increased in the past for the next half hour. Although it was facetiously entertaining, it emphasized the degree of seriousness this particular issue has brought the student community. A resolution was passed collectively to protest against this increase; nevertheless, one of the students, Bob, refused to sign his name to anything due to his phobia about commitments. The second issue that was discussed was the lineup for the next semester’s musical events. Bob remarked that there were too many country acts, and not enough alternative acts. He noted, â€Å"A little country goes a long way†, which spurred conflict with Marty, another member of the body. Marty vented, â€Å"What do you want, some idiot in leather who spits up fake blood.† He added that country acts are popular in the whole community as compared to alternative acts, which draw audiences very poorly. With the current policy of up-front deposits required by Elite Productions, the body agreed to ensure that we don’t book any weak acts, which could deplete the whole budget of the student organization for the entire year. Bob replied that he did not mean to neither degrade nor insult country acts, and the two agreed to discuss the issue at a deeper

My life In Hong Kong Essay Example for Free

My life In Hong Kong Essay Dr. Jose P. Rizal, the national hero of the Philippines, had said, â€Å"Ang taong hindi marunong tumingin sa pinanggalingan ay hindi makakarating sa patutunguhan.†[1]   One must always know how to go back to one’s roots.   The essence of one’s life is greatly reflected by the ability to remember the path taken to get to where one is headed.   One’s achievements are also highlighted by the reflections brought about by the environment that shaped one’s own vision and mission in life.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   At this point in my life, where career opportunities are being shot at me from every direction, indecisiveness slowly creeps in to the corners of my mind:   what do I really want to do?   And one answer always keeps coming up:   I want to change the world.   Clichà ©, yes.   Probably impossible as well.   However, all grand actions in this world began with baby steps.   As for me, this research paper is my very own baby step.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Despite still being undecided as to what the conclusion to my studies would be, as to what career path I would take, as to which country I would serve, this research paper will aid me in whatever ministry I decide to do. This research paper will lay down the path of understanding diverse professional and career opportunities.   If I decide to enter the corporate world and work under its marketing, sales or any other economics-related division, this research paper will bring about a deeper understanding of the economic policies of Hong Kong – why Chinese products and services are more acceptable to Hong Kong companies, rather than those offered by other countries, especially the United States and Great Britain.   If I do decide to enter a career in the academe, this research will pave the way for a deeper understanding of colonization, state freedom, and shifts in political, economic, social and cultural environments. On a personal level, this paper will help me understand immigrants in a deeper sense.   Just like Hong Kong nationals, immigrants experience a change in environment, and the struggle to balance embracing a brand new culture and holding on to age-old traditions passed from generation to generation. Either way, this research paper will not go to waste as it brought me back to the place that gave birth to my being. It’s been a long time since I’ve lived in Hong Kong.   Many times, I forget what it means to be Chinese – choosing a burger over dumplings and noodles, partying in Times Square on the eve of the new year and yet sleeping through the eve of Chinese New Year, not calling my family during holidays or even just to tell them how I am doing.   Living in a foreign country brings about either one of two things: craving to go back home or completely forgetting what home is like.   This research paper made me go through a journey that I was trying to evade – to remember where I came from. It is not easy to do a paper on a place that had been a part of my life.   And yet the perspective brought into the paper is the perspective of a third person – one who is not a Hong Kong local, Chinese national or British citizen.   This research paper on Hong Kong is done by someone from Hong Kong and yet all information and data are taken in a very objective view in order to report an unbiased analysis.   The need to present all sides of the issue is necessary for a better understanding of the conflict being presented in the paper. And this is what distinguishes this research paper from other research papers. [1] â€Å"A person who does not know how to remember where he came from will never get to where he wants to go.†

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Tablets In Pharmaceutical Industry

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Tablets In Pharmaceutical Industry Introduction Tablets are solid dosage forms usually containing active pharmaceutical ingredient and excipients in powder, crystalline or granular form with or without diluents which is prepared either by moulding or compression process. They are solid, biconvex or flat in shape and vary in size, shape and weight which is depends on the medicaments which are used for preparation. They are also varying in hardness, disintegration; dissolution characteristics and thickness depend on their intended use and method of manufacture. Tablets are the most widely used solid dosage forms because of their advantages and popularity increasing day by day. Tablet usually contains filler, diluents, binders, lubricants, glidants, disintegrants, antiadherent, colouring agents and flavouring agents as excipients.[Ansels Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and Drug Delivery Systems, Eighth Edition, Loyd V. Allen, Jr, Nicholos G. Popovich, Howard C. Ansel, 2005, pp-228-245] Advantages of tablets Unit dosage forms with accurate, stable dose and great precision and least variability. Most stable with respect to physical, chemical and microbiological attributes. Cheapest oral dosage form, easy to handle, use and carry out with attractive and elegant appearance. Cheap, easy to swallow and production does not require and additional processing steps. Provide protection of medicaments from atmospheric conditions like air, moisture and light, etc. Provide prolonged stability to medicaments. Low manufacturing cost as compare to other solid dosage forms and large scale production is possible. Administration of minute dose of drug in accurate amount. Unpleasant taste can be masked by sugar coating. Easy to divide into halves and quarters whenever fraction dose is required. Formulate as a special release products such as enteric or delayed release products. Packing and production is cheap and does not require more space for storage. Disadvantages of tablets Drugs which are amorphous and low density character are difficult to compress into tablet. Hygroscopic drugs are not suitable for compressed tablets. Drugs with low or poor water solubility, sloe dissolution, high absorbance in GI tract may be difficult to formulate. Sensitive to oxygen drugs may require special coating. Cost of production may be increase because of coating and encapsulation to remove bitter and unpleasant taste. Some tablet may cause problem in bioavailability. Difficult to formulate liquid in tablet and swallowing is difficult especially for children and ill patients. Types of tablets There are many types of tablets according to the intended of use and manufacturing process. [A] Oral tablet intended for ingestion Compressed tablets: Tablets can be made by compression of one or more active pharmaceutical ingredient with excipients by basic methods of tablet manufacturing. These types of tablets usually intended to provide raid drug release and disintegration. Tablets are coated after compression. Multiple compressed tablets: Multiple compressed tablets are prepared by compressing the material more than once. These are known as multiple layered tablets or tablet within tablet. Layered are depends on number of fills. Layered tablets are prepared by compaction of fill material in die followed by additional of fill material and compression. Delayed action or Enteric coated tablets: These types of tablets contain a coating which resist dissolution of tablets in Gastro Intestinal Track (GIT) and disintegrate in intestinal fluids thus rendering delayed release features. Enteric coating is generally apply when drug substance is unstable in gastric fluid and may destroyed or may cause irritation in gastric mucosa or to extent absorption of drug from intestine. Normally coating materials mixed with acid and acid functionality or modified natural polymers. Most commonly used coating polymers are: Cellulose acetate phthalate (CAP), polyvinyl acetate phthalate (PVAP) and hydroxyl propyl methyl cellulose phthalate. Sugar coated tablet: Compressed tablets may be coated with coloured or uncoloured sugar coating and the coater is water soluble and dissolve quickly after swallowing. Sugar coat protects drug from environment, remove bitter taste and odour, enhance the appearance of tablet and permit identifying information. Sugar coating has some disadvantages like increase coat of production, require expertise for coating, increase size and weight. Film coated tablets: Tablets are compressed with a thin layer of polymer which forms a skin like film over tablet. The film is usually coloured, more durable and less bulky. The coating is designed to rupture and expose of tablet at desired location within GIT. Most commonly used polymers are Hydroxy propyl cellulose, Hydroxy ethyl and propyl methyl cellulose. Chewable tablet: These types of tablets have smooth surface, creamy base and usually flavoured and coloured mannitol, rapid disintegration which allow dissolving quickly in mouth. These types mostly useful for administration of large dose to children and adults. [B]Tablet used for oral cavity Buccal tablets and sublingual tablets: Buccal and sublingual tablets are flat in shape and intended to dissolve drug in buccal cavity or beneath the tongue for mucosa absorption. These techniques useful for drugs which are destroyed by gastric fluid or poor absorption in GIT. Buccal tablets erode slowly and sublingual tablets dissolve quickly and produce rapid effect. Troches and Lozenges: They are intended to slowly dissolution mostly for local effect but sometimes for systemic absorption. Troches and Lozenges are disc shaped which contain active ingredient and flavouring agent in hard candy or sugar base. Dental cones: dental cones are designed to place in the empty socket for prevention of bacterial growth and sometime bleeding by containing coagulant. Dental cones release slowly for long duration. [C] Tablets for other routes Vaginal tablet: Vaginal tablets are prepared by compression and shaped to fit snugly on plastic inserter devices in uncoated bullet shaped or ovoid tablets which are inserted into vagina for local effects with slow dissolution. They contain anti bacterial effect and also called vaginal inserts. Implantation tablet: Implantation tablets are injected under the skin by giving a small surgical cut into the skin. A special injector a hallow needle and plunger may require for administration. Purpose of these tablets is to prolong drug effect from month to year. These tablets are implanted intramuscularly or subcutaneous so they must be sterile and packed in sterile container. [Pharmaceutics I, P.V. KASTURE, S.R. PARAKH, S.A. HASAN, S.B. GOKHALE, June 2008, pp-14-7,21] [D] Tablets for solution Effervescent tablet: Effervescent tablets prepared by compression of granular salts which release in contact with water. Dispensing tablets: These types of tablets are no longer use because they had dangerous potential. They might be termed compounding tablets because it contain highly potent drug and pharmacist use it for compound prescription. Hypodermic tablets: Hypodermic tablets are soft moulded tablets which contain soluble ingredient and used for extemporaneous parenteral preparation by physician. They are no longer in use because it is difficult to achieve sterility and availability of stable liquid. Tablet triturates: tablet triturates are rarely use now a days because they are obsolete. They are small, cylindrical, molded which contain small amount of potent drug. They must be readily soluble in water and minimum amount pressure require during manufacture. Triturates inserted into capsules or dissolved in liquid to provide accurate potent drug. Tablet Excipients: Excipients are substance other that active ingredient in formulation of tablet. The roles of excipients are to ensure tabletting operation satisfactory and ensure that tablets of specified quality are prepared. Depend on intended use; they are subcategorised in different groups. However excipients affect properties of tablets. Diluents or filler A small amount of powder requires forming suitable size tablet for easy handling. Normally tablet weigh 50mg so some amount of bulk drug requires to incorporation in formulation of tablet which enhance size of tablet. These powders known as diluents or fillers. The ideal dilute should have following properties- cheap, chemically inert, acceptable taste, good compactability and dilution capacity, biocompatible, good biopharmaceutical properties and non hygroscopic. A single substance cannot fulfil all these requirements so different substance have gained use as diluents mainly carbohydrates and inorganic salts sometimes. The most common diluent is lactose because it possess a sires of good properties like dissolves readily in water, has a pleasant taste, non hygroscopic is fairly non reactive and shows good compact ability. Its main limitation is that some people have intolerance to lactose. Basically lactose exists in two forms crystalline and amorphous. Other sugar and sugar alcohols such as glucose, sucrose, and mannitol have been used as alternative fillers, mostly in chewable tablets or lozenges because of their pleasant taste. Other important example of the filler is an inorganic substance, dicalcium phosphate dehydrate. It is insoluble in water and also non hygroscopic but have hydrophilic property i.e. easily wetted by water. It also has good flow ability and therefore it is used mostly in direct compaction. [Michael, Pharmaceutics: the design and manufacture of medicines.- 3rd ed. Edinburgh : Churchill Livingstone, 2007.] [ Leon Lachman, Herbert A. Lieberman and Joseph L. Kanig. (1991). the theory and practise of industrial pharmacy. 3rd addition: Varghese publishing house. Page no. 293- 303.] Disintegrants: According to Michael, 2007, a disintegrant is added in formulation of tablet, which promotes drug dissolution and provide an effective surface area, when comes in contact to liquid and breaks down in small fragments. The process of disintegration for tablet occurs in main two steps [1] Tablet wets by sold and pores it [2] Breaks down of tablet into small fragments which include aggregation of primary particles into small drug particles. Disintegrant suggested in some mechanism such as swelling of particles, wetting reaction, repulsion of particle and particle recovery. Most common types of disintegrants in tablets are maize, potato and corn starch. the concentration of starch is up to 10% required but today normally modified starch or modified cellulose are used which are very high swelling disintegrants. So its requires typically 1-5% by weight which facilitate particle-particle repulsion. However, disintegrants can be mixed with other ingredients such as granules to increase effective disintegration of the tablet into smaller fragments. Leon Lachman et al, 1991, suggested that other group of disintegrants may function by producing gas, normally carbon dioxide, in contact with water. This types of disintegrants used in effervescent tablets and normally not in tablets that should be swallowed as a solid. The liberation of carbon dioxide is achieved by the decomposition of carbonate salts or bicarbonate in contact with acidic water. The acidic pH is obtained by adding citric acid and tartaric acid. [ Michael, Pharmaceutics: the design and manufacture of medicines.- 3rd ed. Edinburgh : Churchill Livingstone, 2007. 3. Leon Lachman, Herbert A. Lieberman and Joseph L. Kanig. (1991). the theory and practise of industrial pharmacy. 3rd addition: Varghese publishing house. Page no. 293- 303] Binder Binder is added to the tablet or filler mixture to ensure that tablets and granules have sufficient mechanical strength. There are several ways to add it in powder- Mixed with powder before wet granulation which completely or partially dissolves during agglomeration process by agglomeration liquid. Mixed with other ingredient as a dry powder solution before compaction process As a solution used as agglomeration liquid during wet granulation. Typically 2-10% of binders or dry binders are used in formulation. Most tradition common binders are starch, sucrose and gelatine but now most common are polyvinylpyrrolidone and cellulose derivatives which have improved adhesive properties. Examples of dry binders are microcrystalline cellulose and crosslinked polyvinylpyrrolidone. Solution binders are most effective therefore it is incorporated in granules. Glidant The role of the Glidant is to improve the flow ability of the powder. Glidants are used in formulation for direct compaction but they are also used in granulation process before tabletting which ensure flow ability of tablet mass for high speed production. Traditionally talc has been used as glidant about 1-2% concentration in formulation but nowadays the most commonly used glidant is colloidal silica added in very low proportion about 0.2% by weight.[ Michael, Pharmaceutics: the design and manufacture of medicines.- 3rd ed. Edinburgh : Churchill Livingstone, 2007. 3. Leon Lachman, Herbert A. Lieberman and Joseph L. Kanig. (1991). the theory and practise of industrial pharmacy. 3rd addition: Varghese publishing house. Page no. 293- 303] Lubricant The function of lubrication is to ensure low lubrication between solid and the die wall during tablet formation and ejection. High friction during tabletting can cause a series of problems such as inadequate tablet quality and may even stop production. Lubrication is most important which included in most of production. Lubrication can get by mainly two mechanism, fluid lubrication and boundary lubrication. In fluid lubrication, liquid is achieved between die surface and tablet surface which separates the moving surfaces of the solids from each other and reduces the friction. While in boundary lubrication, it is considered as a surface phenomenon, as here moving surface is separated by a very thin layer of lubricants. Such boundary lubricants are Stearic acid salts, primarily Magnesium Stearate which is most widely use due to its superior lubrication properties. Besides reducing friction, lubricants may also causes undesirable changes such as reducing tablet strength with bonding between the particles during compaction. Because of hydrophobic properties of lubricants, tablet disintegration and dissolution are often retarded by the addition of lubricants. Thus, minimum amount of lubricants are used, i.e. concentrations of 1% or below, often 0.25-0.5%.in order to avoid these negative effects, more hyd rophilic substances have been suggested as alternatives to the hydrophobic lubricants. For example, surface active agents and polyethylene glycols and sometimes a combination of hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances might also be used. [M. E Aulton, Pharmaceutics, The Science of Dosage Form Design, Second Edition, 2002, pp.408-412] Antiadherent Antiadherent are substance which reduce adhesion between powder and punch faces which prevent sticking of particles to punches. The sticking is mainly affected by moisture content of the powder. Such adherence especially prone to happen if the tablet punches have marking or symbols which lead to a build of thin layer of powder on the punches which in turn will lead to an uneven and matt tablet surface with unclear markings or symbols. Some lubricants such as Magnesium Stearate have also antiadherent properties. However, other substances with limited ability to reduce friction can also act as antiadherent such as talc and starch. [M. E Aulton, Pharmaceutics, The Science of Dosage Form Design, Second Edition, 2002, pp.408-412] Sorbents Sorbents are substances which has capacity to sorbing some quantities of fluid into dry state. So oil and oil-drug solutions can be incorporated into mixture of powder and compacted into tablets. Most commonly used sorbents are Microcrystalline Cellulose and Silica. [M. E Aulton, Pharmaceutics, The Science of Dosage Form Design, Second Edition, 2002, pp.408-412] Flavouring agents Flavouring agents are incorporated into a formulation to remove unpleasant taste of bitter drug or to make tablet more pleasant or mask. This can be achieved by coating or by adding some drug particles. Most of Flavouring agents are thermolabile so it cannot be added in process which involve heating. They are mixed with granules as alcoholic solution. Colouring agents The aim to add colourant is to aid identification of tablet, improve looks of tablet and patient compliance. Mostly, colourant are added during coating of tablet but some of colourant may be added in formulation prior to compaction. Colourant may be added as an insoluble powder or dissolved in granulation liquid and the latter procedure may produce colour variation by migration of soluble dye during drying stage. Method of tablet preparation Three types method of tablet preparation- [1] Direct compression method [2] Wet granulation [3] Dry granulation Direct compression method Some chemicals have free flowing and cohesive properties so they are enable to compress directly in a tablet machine without granulation of it. Some chemicals lacking of these qualities so some excipients like filler, disintegrants agents, lubricants and glidants are used to impart these qualities for production of tablets by direct compression. Figure (A) Steps of direct compression tableting Some precaution must be taken during direct compression to avoid air entrapment which cause capping, splitting, or laminating of tablets. Forced feeders or induced feeders are used to reduce air entrapment, make filling powder more dense and amenable to compaction. Capping also may be caused by punches that are not perfectly clean and flawlessly smooth or by too much fines granulation. Some aged or improperly stored tablets also may exhibit splitting and other physical deformations. Wet granulation Granulation is process in which primary powder particles are made to form large and these types of multi particle called granules. In pharmaceutical industry, granules are useful in production of tablets and capsules in ranges of particle size between0.2 to 0.5mm. Granulation prevents segregation of constituents of powder, improve flow ability of powder, improve compaction characteristics of mixture and reduce toxic dust. Wet granulation is widely used method for production of compressed tablets which include flowing steps- Weighting and blending In this step, specified quantities of active ingredient, diluents or fillers, and disintegrating agents are mixed by mechanical powder blender or mixture until uniform. Most widely used fillers are lactose, microcrystalline cellulose, starch, powdered sucrose, and calcium phosphate. Selections of filler depend on the experience of manufacture, cost and compatibility with formulation. Among the fillers, lactose is most preferred because of its solubility and compatibility, and microcrystalline cellulose, because of its easy compaction compatibility and consistent uniformity of supply. Disintegrating agents include croscarmellose, corn and potato starches, sodium starch glycolate, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, polyvinyl polypyrrolidone (PVP), cation exchange resins, alginic acid and other materials which swell or expand on exposure to moisture and helps to breakup tablets in gastrointestinal track (GIT). Mainly croscarmellose and sodium starch glycolate are used because of their high water uptake and rapid action. Mostly up to 5-10% of starch is suitable for formulation, but up to about 20% may be used to facilitate more rapid tablet disintegration. The total amount of disintegrant is not always used but sometime it added in preparation of granulation and sometime half of it added to tablet formation which called double disintegration of tablet. One portion of disintegrant assist breakup of tablet into pieces and other portion breakup pieces into particles. Preparation of Damp Mass A liquid binder is now added to the powder to facilitate adhesion of powder particles. A damp mass resembling dough is formed and used to prepare the granulation. A good binder is very important for hardness of tablet and does not hinder the release of drug from the tablet. Most widely used binders are povidone, an aqueous preparation of corn starch (10-20%), methyl cellulose (3%), carboxymethylcellulose, and microcrystalline cellulose. Some drugs may be adversely affected by an aqueous binder then non-aqueous solutions or dry binder may be used. The amount of binders is a part of operation which maintains integrity of tablet after compression. However, care must be exercised not to over or underwet powder otherwise underwet can result too hard granules for proper tablet formulation and overwet can result too soft and tend to crumble in under wetting. After getting desired dump mass a colorant or flavorant may be added to prepare a granulation with an added features. Screening Damp Mass into Pellets and Granules The Dump Mass is pressed through 6 or 8 mesh size to prepare granules. This process may be done by hand or by special equipment which prepares granules by extrusion process. The final product are spread on large piece of paper in trays and dried. Drying the granulation Granules may be dried in special drying cabinets which is thermostatically controlled at constantly record the time, temperature and humidity. Fluid bed drier and tray drier are commonly used for during process. Sizing the granulation by Dry Screening After drying, the granules are passed through a screen of a smaller mess than that used to prepare the original granulation. The size of granules depends upon the size of the punches to be used. Usually 12 to 20 mesh sizes are used for granulation. Sizing of the granules is necessary so that the die cavities for tablet compression may be completely or rapidly filled by the free flowing granules. Voids or air spaces left by too large a granulation result in production of uneven tablets. Adding Lubrication and Blending After dry screening, a dry lubricant is spread over the granulation through a fine mess screen which contributes to preparation of compressed tablets. Among the most commonly used lubricants are talc, magnesium stearate, calcium stearate, stearic acid, and sodium stearyl fumarate in ranges of 0.1% to 5%. Lubricants improve flow property of granules form hooper ti die, prevent adhesion during compaction, reduce friction between die and punch and provide a sheen final product. Figure (B) Tablet compression by wet granulation [Pharmaceutics I, P.V. KASTURE, S.R. PARAKH, S.A. HASAN, S.B. GOKHALE, June 2008, pp-14-7, 21] Some special wet granulation techniques High shear mixture granulation Fluid bed granulation Extrusion- spheronisation Spray drying Dry granulation In this method, powder mixer is compressed in large pieces and subsequently broken down or sized into granules. In this method, either active ingredient or diluent must have cohesive properties. This method is basically applied to materials which cannot be prepared by wet granulation because of moisture degradation properties or thermo-mobile properties of granules. It is carried out by two steps: Slugging: After weighing and the mixing of ingredients, the powder mixture is slugged or compressed into large flat tablets about one inch in diameter. Slugs are than broken up hand or mill and passed through a screen of desired mess for sizing and sometimes lubricant are added and prepared by compression. Roller compaction: Instead of slugging, powder compactors may be used to increase the density of a powder by pressing it between rollers at 1 ton to 6 tons of pressure. The compact material is broken up, sized, and lubricated, and tablets are prepared by compression. Commonly used binding agents are methyl cellulose or hydroxylmethyl cellulose (6-12%) which produces good hardness and friability of tablet. Figure (C) Tablet compression by Dry Granulation [Pharmaceutics I, P.V. KASTURE, S.R. PARAKH, S.A. HASAN, S.B. GOKHALE, June 2008, pp-14-7, 21] Tableting of granulation: There are different types of tabletting machines which are used in the productivity but similar in basic function and operation. They all compress tablet formulation within steel die cavity by the pressure exerted by the movement of two steel punches, lower punch and an upper punch. Problems in manufacture of tablet Capping and lamination: Capping means partial and complete separation of the top or bottom crowns of a tablet from main body of a tablet. While lamination is term used to describe the separation of the two or more distinct layers. Some reasons which are responsible for these problems are as follows: Air is entrapped among the particles during the compression process and does not escape until compression pressure is released. Die wall pressure causes enough internal stress to cause a crack which is due to plastic deformation of the particles during compaction. Sometimes due to deep concave or bevelled edge punches. Development of wear ring. This problem can reduced or eliminated by slowing tabletting rate, granules with sufficient moisture, pre-compression, using flat punches, correct adjustment punches. [Porter, S C, 1981, Tablet coating, Drug Cosmetic Indu, May 46, June 44, Aug 40, Sept 50] Weight variation: This is very important in process control measurement. If anything that can alter the die filling process can alter tablet weight, it causes weight variation because the weight of the tablet being compressed is determined by the amount of the granulation in the die prior to compression. Some causes of variation are large granules, poor mixing of granules with lubricants and glidants, poor granulation flow from hopper, double impression and punch variation. Picking Picking is the term used to describe the surface material from tablet that is sticking to being removed from the tablets surface by a punch. It concerns when punching tips have engraving or embossing Sticking Sticking is usually referred to adhesion of tablet material to die wall. Because of that, lower punch cannot move freely and additional force is required to overcome friction between die wall and the tablet. These problems can be solved by design large lettering, adding polishing agent such as colloidal silica or additional lubricants. Some low melting point substances such as polyethylene glycol may also cause sticking at the heat of compression. Such Remedies are addition of high melting point materials and consequently increasing size of tablet. Mottling: Mottling is term used unequal distribution of colour on a tablet with light and dark areas. Its due to colour difference of drug with excipients or drugs whose degradation product is coloured. Such problems might be solved by using colorants but it can cause mottling on the top of surface when granulation undergoes drying. To overcome difficulties, it require to change solvent system, binder system and by reducing temperature. Tablet coating Tablet coating is application of coating of material to the exterior of tablet with some intentional benefits. It is also intended for modified release applications. Main three types of coating are- Film coating Sugar coating Press coating Coating of tablets are for following purposes- [1] Protection from environment, light and moisture [2] To remove bitter taste of some tablets and for easy swallowing of tablets [3] Colour coating mask differences in appearance which effect on patient compliance [4] Rapid identification by manufacturer, pharmacist and patient [5] Functional films can enable sustained and enteric protection [6] Improve looks (elegance), masks and minor difference in raw material appereance [7] Enhance strength, reduce dust and cross contamination Film coating This is more modern and widely used for tablet coating. Most of newly launched coated products are film coated rather than sugar coating. Film coating involves covering of tablet by thin film layer of coating liquid (polymer). Coating liquid is sprayed in a rotating tablet bed or bed fluidised tablet which contains plasticizer, polymer, colourant and solvent. The drying condition permits removal of solvent and leaves a thin layer around each tablet. Sometimes aqueous solution or organic solutions are used to reduce elimination of volatile organic compound, health and safety and cost reduction purposes. Film coating polymer should have following properties- [1] Optimum solubility to facilitate dissolution of final product. High soluble for immediate release and low soluble for controlled release. [2] Optimum viscosity to permit and trouble free spraying of solution. [3] Optimum permeability to optimize shelf life of tablet preparation and some tuned to provide an effective barrier oxygen and water vapour. [4] Good mechanical strength to withstand the impact and abrasion encountered in normal handling which avoids cracks and imperfections. Cellulose derivatives like Hydroxypropylmethylcellulosa (HPMC), methylcellulose, hydroxypropylcellulose (HPC) and Methacrylate amino ester copolymer are available polymer for film coating. Sugar coating Sugar coating involves the successive application of sucrose based solutions to tablet cores in suitable equipment. Some stages in production of sugar coated tablets are- [1] Sealing of tablet core- provide water proofing core from coating process and shellac, cellulose acetate phthalate are normally used in sealing process. [2] Sub coating- it is the actual start of sugar coating which provides necessary build-up to roundup the tablet edge. Bulking agents such as calcium carbonate or talc added in sucrose solution with gum. [3] Smoothing it increases tablet size to predetermined dimension by syrup solution. This solution contains pigments, starch, gelatine, acacia or opacifier. [4] Colouring- dyes or pigments [5] Polishing- tablets need to be polished to achieve final elegance by waxes like beeswax, carnubawax or hard paraffin. [6] Printing Difference between sugar and film coating Press coating Press coating involves compaction of granules material around core of tablet with the use of compressing equipment like Manesty Drycota. Today press coating is used in to separate incompatible placed core and coating layer. This process requires some care and large or irregularly sized agglomerate of granules may cause core to tilt in die. Disadvantages of process arise from complexities of mechanism used in compression equipment. [M. E Aulton, Pharmaceutics, The Sc

Effects of Language on a Specific Region

Effects of Language on a Specific Region Crystal Mullen ASSIGNMENT: Select a specific region that interests you, such as South America, Central America, Asia, etc., and research, as well as evaluate, the power of language in creating the idea of a region. Is language a self-sufficient and complete geographical model? Write a 1-2 page paper explaining your findings. Please be sure to substantiate your opinions with examples, as well as cite your resources using APA format. in length. Professor Sandve’s Explanation: 1) Define a region. What is a region? 2) Evaluate the power of language. Can you define a regions society, traditions, norms, climate, topography, etc. by evaluating the language? 3) Is language a self-sufficient and complete geographical model? What is a geographical model? If language is the only characteristic youre evaluating, can you fully define the region? I believe a region means something different to different people or industries. Before taking this class, I thought a region was that part of the basement or that portion of an attic that scary movies warned us to avoid. The Merriam-Webster dictionary had a different view: â€Å"Region: a part of a country, of the world, etc., that is different or separate from other parts in some way (Merriam-Webster.com, 2014)† This definition appears to speak more to the topic of geography because we are now discussing spatial locations that offer distinct characteristics that are found in that found in that location. However, I need to know what a region is from a geographer’s point of view. â€Å"Region: in geography, an area of the earth that displays distinctive grouping of physical or cultural phenomena or is functionally united as a single organizational unit (Getis, Bjelland, Getis, 2014).† This definition best describes geography in the for this assignment because it encourages me to pick an area of the world that I find interesting because of how various physical or cultural features are joined into one spatial location. One region that I that does interest me is Africa. Africa is the second largest continent in the world; as well as the world’s second most-populous continent. Within its borders one will find 54 countries that are share the home for the continent’s many mountains, rivers, valleys and deserts. First of all, the Atlas Mountains run from the southwestern portion of Morocco along the coastline of the Mediterranean, all the way to Tunisia’s eastern edge. Also, the Great Rift Valley is the continent’s ground form of depression. Here is found a series of geological faults at are approximately 4,000 miles in length. The extent of the Great Rift Valley extends from the Red Sea region near Jordan, to the country of Mozambique. Furthermore, Africa is home to the Congo River Basin which dominates the landscape of central Africa’s Democratic Republic of the Congo. Finally though certainly not I would be remiss to speak of Africa without speaking of the Sahara Desert. The Sahara Desert cover close those a third o f Africa’s surface. It is the world’s largest desert in the world at approximately 3,500,000 square miles in total size (World Atlas, 2014). Based on this the geographical information, I would be surprised to learn if there is a cohesion of language within the continent to unify the continent of Africa. The range of traditions and customs in Africa are as diverse as Africa’s geography. For example, when it comes to meal time, the men eat before the women. Children remain silent while adult meal conversation is in progress. Also, hospitality is very important to the country of Africa. When they welcome their guests, they wash their hands, clap, and offer their best meats as a symbol of graciousness. Furthermore, when it comes to courtship, it appears that it is the girl who initiates the process. She will send a multi-colored beaded bracelet to the boy of her choice. Each bead represents a secret meaning and once the courtship process is over the secret behind the beads are revealed. Finally, though certainly exhaustively, it is customary during an African wedding that the bride wears a wedding dress that reflects her culture’s traditions and heritage. Also, the bride and groom are often tied at the wrists with either cloth or braided grass as a symbol of their newly cr eated union (Drake, 2014). When I read these customs, I feel as if it is possible for language to be a complete self-sufficient model of its people because their customs appear to transcend their multi-faceted geography, The aspect about Africa is their massive diversity of languages and dialects. While no one appears to know for absolute certainty, the best estimate of the number of languages and dialects spoken in Africa are around 2,000. One group of African languages are known as the Afro-Asiatic language group of languages. The 400 languages under this umbrella is generally heard spoken in North, East, and Southwest Africa. Some examples of these languages include Aramaic, Amharic, Arabic, Hausa, Hebrew, and Tigrinya. Another family of languages heard spoken in Africa is the Khoisan, or language. This happens a language that may be dying out, it is currently spoken in Angola, Botswana, and Namibia. This is the family of fifty different languages that use mainly clicking or tonal sounds to communicate. Finally though certainly not exhaustively the language family that holds the greatest number of languages is the Niger-Congo language family. Under this umbrella of languages one will find almost 4 00 languages that are spoken by over 500 million people. Common languages that fall within this family include Igbo, Swahili, Yoruba, and Zulu (wiseGEEK, 2014). I find it fascinating that there are countless languages for a person in Africa to express the frustration of the desert sand, being insulted by a dinner guest or vowing his or her life to a new spouse. I find myself conflicted when I consider if language is a complete, self-sufficient geographical model of the region of Africa. On the one hand, because there are over 2,000 languages, spoken in Africa, I would say that each language and dialect is a perfect representation of the country, or portion of that country within Africa. If language were my only representation I was evaluating, I could easily define that particular region. On the other hand, because there are over 2,000 languages, spoken in Africa, I would say that each language and dialect creates the perfect storm for confusion for Africa as a whole. I don’t see how I could identify Africa as a continent because the continent cannot unite behind one or two languages. In this scenario, if language were my only representation I was evaluating, I would greatly struggle to define the continent because millions of African citizens would not be representing in my definition. Therefore, I find that the African languages bo th reflect and confuses the geographic model found in the continent of Africa. References Drake, F. (2014). African Customs. Retrieved January 26, 2014, from eHow.com: http://www.ehow.com/info_8582146_african-customs.html Getis, A., Bjelland, M., Getis, V. (2014, January 7). Glossary. In A. Getis, M. Bjelland, V. Getis, Introduction to Geography (pp. G-9). New York: McGraw Hill. Retrieved from Balanced Politics: http://www.balancedpolitics.org/affirmative_action.htm Merriam-Webster.com. (2014). Definiton of Region. Retrieved January 26, 2014, from Merriam-Webster.com: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/region wiseGEEK. (2014). How Many Languages are Spoken in Africa? Retrieved January 26, 2014, from wiseGEEK: http://www.wisegeek.org/how-many-languages-are-spoken-in-africa.htm World Atlas. (2014). Africa Map. Retrieved January 26, 2014, from World Atlas: http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/af.htm World Atlas. (2014). Geography Africa. Retrieved January 26, 2014, from World Atlas: http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/afland.htm

ECON 4131, International Finance, Spring 2002, Exam 2 Essays -- UMN Mi

Midterm Exam International Finance April 7, 2004 Answer all questions in examination booklets 1. (15 points) Define the following a) The â€Å"spot† exchange rate b) The â€Å"forward† exchange rate c) A capital account â€Å"surplus† d) Currency depreciation e) Arbitrage 2. (10 points) Briefly discuss the essential features of forward contracts, currency futures, and currency options. 3. (15 points) Use the BOP accounts guide on the last page of this exam to indicate where each of the following transactions should be recorded in the U.S. balance of payments (e.g.: â€Å"i3†, â€Å"e2†, etc.). Bear in mind that each transaction should generate a capital account and a current account entry. a) A Canadian firm buys a $75 million jet from the American company Boeing, which it pays for with a check drawn on Banc du Quebec b) Cargill (out of Mpls.) buys $10m. of Canadian wheat, which it pays for with a check drawn on Twin Cities Federal c) An American...

Gene Therapy :: Genetics Genetic Engineering

Gene Therapy Gene therapy is the term used for the process of curing various diseases on the genetic level by injecting patients with a healthy gene so their bodies will continue to produce healthy copies of the gene rather than destructive ones. The term gene therapy and the basic notions that it entailed weren't even in researchers' vocabulary until the mid 1960's. Early endeavors to cure people via a genetic approach began in 1970 with a disease called argininemia, but proved ineffective. An actual effective transfer of a gene didn’t occur until nine years later in 1979. Early attempts to examine the ethical nature of the future of gene therapy stemmed from this initial successful experiment and ones immediately following it.2 Throughout the 1980’s and early 1990’s development of gene therapy continued. It wasn’t until 1993 that the first clinical trial of gene therapy using the adenovirus, which was the vector that Jesse Gelsinger was administered, took place.2 A vector is the method by which the healthy gene is inserted into the DNA of the patient. 18 year-old Jesse Gelsinger died September 17, 1999 from a gene therapy experiment targeting the gene for the disease ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC), a rare genetic disorder that affects the liver and its ability to clear ammonia from the body’s bloodstream. The illness occurs in 1 out of every 40,000 births and 50% of infants die within a month of birth. Jesse had a relatively mild form of the disease and was controlling it with drugs. He entered the study to help further OTC research with the hopes of finding a treatment for others with the condition.1 The study was performed by the University of Pennsylvania’s gene therapy researchers. Researchers injected Jesse’s liver with a vector including both the adenovirus and a normal OTC gene. He was the 18th subject to undergo the treatment, but received a higher dose of the adenovirus than all of the other subjects. Gene Therapy :: Genetics Genetic Engineering Gene Therapy Gene therapy is the term used for the process of curing various diseases on the genetic level by injecting patients with a healthy gene so their bodies will continue to produce healthy copies of the gene rather than destructive ones. The term gene therapy and the basic notions that it entailed weren't even in researchers' vocabulary until the mid 1960's. Early endeavors to cure people via a genetic approach began in 1970 with a disease called argininemia, but proved ineffective. An actual effective transfer of a gene didn’t occur until nine years later in 1979. Early attempts to examine the ethical nature of the future of gene therapy stemmed from this initial successful experiment and ones immediately following it.2 Throughout the 1980’s and early 1990’s development of gene therapy continued. It wasn’t until 1993 that the first clinical trial of gene therapy using the adenovirus, which was the vector that Jesse Gelsinger was administered, took place.2 A vector is the method by which the healthy gene is inserted into the DNA of the patient. 18 year-old Jesse Gelsinger died September 17, 1999 from a gene therapy experiment targeting the gene for the disease ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC), a rare genetic disorder that affects the liver and its ability to clear ammonia from the body’s bloodstream. The illness occurs in 1 out of every 40,000 births and 50% of infants die within a month of birth. Jesse had a relatively mild form of the disease and was controlling it with drugs. He entered the study to help further OTC research with the hopes of finding a treatment for others with the condition.1 The study was performed by the University of Pennsylvania’s gene therapy researchers. Researchers injected Jesse’s liver with a vector including both the adenovirus and a normal OTC gene. He was the 18th subject to undergo the treatment, but received a higher dose of the adenovirus than all of the other subjects.